Surveillance and Control in the Imperial Metalla of Faynan

Hannah Friedman 1

In the Roman and Byzantine empires metalla — mining and quarrying districts— were imperially owned, and they produced vital products that were used by the State, both to fund its projects and create its characteristic monuments. Metal was used for coinage and provided the State with an important source of revenue (Hirt 2004, p. 309). Stone was used for public building projects to promote imperial ideology (see Fant 1993, p. 152). Because of their importance a number of large scale extractive industries, metalla, were owned and run for the benefit of the State. Yet these metalla could be very different structurally and administratively, due to local environment, geology and circumstances. Despite sensitivity to regional issues, there were many similarities in these metalla in response to the common demands of an imperial industry. One of these was military presence, and Roman and Byzantine empires soldiers often acted as guards to ensure efficient administration of the mining districts (Hirt 2004, p. 209). The Faynan, located 70 km from the Dead Sea, is a copper mining district. It was the site of large scale industrial activity with an estimated 40,000-70,000 tonnes of copper produced between the 2nd to 7th centuries (Hauptmann 2007, p. 147). Two surveys have explored the area the Jabal Hamrat Fidan Project (JHF) (Levy et al. 2001, 2003) and the Wadi Faynan Landscape Survey (Barker et al. 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2007). Both provide evidence for a military presence in fortified structures, which are seen in archaeological records. There is also a textual reference in Eusebius’ Martyrs of Palestine (MP 13.1-4) to the military working with the administration in the Faynan. Yet these forms of evidence, though they indicate the presence of the military, do not enlighten us as to how they were used. The Faynan does not have evidence for a robust military presence. A small fort occupies the centre of Khirbet Faynan, the largest settlement in the region, and there are watchtowers, some with associated fortified structures that may have held garrisons. Estimations of the size of the military detachment vary from 120 men based on the size of the fort (35 x 35 m) or in comparison with Mons Claudianus, the Egyptian quarry were ostraca record 60 men (Kind et al. 2005, p. 191; Peacock, Maxfield 1997, p. 85). If the Faynan had 60-120 troops, they guarded an area of c. 15 x 9 km, ranging in altitude from below sea level to 1000 m (Barker et al. 1997, p. 21). They oversaw a population of convicts — including Christians who were condemned to the mines (Eusebius MP 7.2)— and free workers and also needed to monitor travellers and traders. With these diverse populations to be supervised, and over so vast an area of rugged terrain, at first glance this troop strength does not appear adequate to the task of guarding and protecting the industry and its product. However, the Faynan landscape creates a natural bowl shape (fig. 1). To the east is the Jordanian Plateau rising 1000 m above sea level. The Wadi Faynan itself is created by the confluence of three tributary wadis, Wadi Dana, Wadi Ghuwayr and Wadi Shayqar, cutting through the rocky eastern mountains